Chapter 11: Magna Carta



     The Magna Carta, also called Magna Carta Libertatum ("Great Charter of Freedoms"), is an English charter originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta was the most significant early influence on the long historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law today. Magna Carta influenced many common law documents, such as the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights, and is considered one of the most important legal documents in the history of democracy.

     By 1215, some of the barons of England banded together and took London by force on June 10, 1215. They and many of the fence-sitting moderates not in overt rebellion forced King John to agree to a document called the "Articles of the Barons," to which his Great Seal was attached in the meadow at Runnymede on June 15, 1215. In return, the barons renewed their oaths of fealty to King John on June 19, 1215. A formal document to record the agreement was created by the royal chancery on July 15: this was the original Magna Carta. An unknown number of copies of it were sent out to officials, such as royal sheriffs and bishops.

     The Magna Carta was originally written in Latin. A large part of Magna Carta was copied, nearly word for word, from the Charter of Liberties of Henry I, issued when Henry I ascended to the throne in 1100, which bound the king to certain laws regarding the treatment of church officials and nobles, effectively granting certain civil liberties to the church and the English nobility.

Chapter 8: The Hindu Caste System

The Hindu class system or “caste” system is a very different one than the class system we have in modern day American society. The caste system has been used for thousands of years in India. While today this system is not as strict as it has been in the past, much of the same characteristics can be found in rural areas. In Indian Society there are four main classes. First, there are the Brahmins which consist of priests, scholars, philosophers, and religious authorities. The Brahmins are the highest ranking caste in Indian society. Under the Brahmins are the Kshatriyas. The Kshatriyas consist of people in the military, and rulers. Basically, Kshatriyas were anyone who was concerned with the defense of a village or state. Next in line are the Vaishyas. The Vaishyas can be considered to be the middle class as they consisted of merchants, traders, and agriculture. And at the bottom of the caste system were the Shudras. It did not pay to be a Shudra as they were the laborers and servants for the other classes. If you thought that the caste system ended there you would be wrong. Under even the Shudras were the Untouchables. The Untouchables were such a low caste that they weren’t part of the caste system at all. People that were an Untouchable had the worst occupations ever. They performed jobs like dealing with dead bodies or cleaning toilets.
Whichever caste a person belonged to was determined at birth. It depended on what caste the parents were apart of and that is the caste that a newborn would also be a part of. There was almost no way of changing castes. If a person did something outside their caste they would be excommunicated from their caste.
As you can see the Hindu caste system is very different from the class structure that we have in modern day American society. There are no strict lines between classes and there are no penalties for doing something outside your class. Also in American society a person can work hard and become part of another class, and are not constrained to one class.

Chapter 7: Terracotta Soldiers

While digging a water well in the Shaanxi province of China, 1974, a group of farmers discovered the very famous Terracotta Soldiers. The Terracotta Soldiers were a vast army of stone soldiers buried with China’s first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, and were meant to accompany, and protect the emperor in the afterlife. The numbers of this army are quite stunning. There are 1800 soldiers divided among three pits, along with 130 chariots, 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses. Don’t assume that the statues stop there; there are also civilian statues such as musicians, acrobats, and even strongmen. Production of this army started in 246 BC, took 37 years to build, and required the advanced skill of over 720,000 workers. The most famous characteristic of the Terracotta Soldiers is the fact that every soldier is different. All soldiers have different facial features, and different facial expressions. In addition these soldiers differ even in height and build.
I think that this particular funerary art is the most fascinating in history. Judging by the sheer numbers of the statues, and how every single one is unique, is simply amazing. The time and effort to sculpt just one of these soldiers had to have been months. Sure, the pyramids in Egypt are grand in size and are an engineering feat, but what can match the attention to detail, and variation of the Terracotta Soldiers? In my opinion, there is no comparison.

[Chapter 8] Confucianism

Confucianism is a major philosophical and religious tradition that was created during the Zhou dynasty. Chinese natives during this time worshipped Confucianism. The man who started this religion was Confucius. Confucius was a very educated individual considering he had such a rough upbringing. After Confucius earned his education, he became a famous teacher who traveled from place to place sharing his knowledge. After Confucius died, his sayings and teachings lived on most notably in a book called The Analects. Confucius believed that individuals should lead a honorable life and live up to high values. He believed that if people were righteous and wholesome then the family would live a good life. If everyone lived their lives according to this, then the entire country would share the same values and live life to the fullest.

In Confucian teachings there are four qualities: li, jen, te and wen. Li teaches that people should be civil, have positive attitudes, and respect for authority. Jen teaches that people should have exceptional relationships with others. The exceptional relationships that Jen mentions includes courtesy, and charity. If a person has both jen and li, Confucian ideal believes this person is a superior human being. Another quality of Confucianism is te. Te involves a person`s character. Te includes influencing others, inspiring respect, and being able to oppress enemies. The last Confucian teaching is wen which deals with art. Confucius thought that art was the key to education and harmony. Music, poetry, art, and other activities based on culture are part of wen. Confucianism is meant to help people be an outstanding person to improve quality of life. The teachings of Confucius were brilliant. Confucius taught people to live a life full of purity which made the lifestyle for these people very harmonious.

[Chapter 7] Buddha In The Gupta Era

The first thing many people notice when studying Gupta art is how sublime it appears. Buddha is an example of Gupta art. The statue of the sitting Buddha is often depicted with its eyes half shut and relaxed facial features showing meditation. The reason behind this spiritual and calm art work is due to the rise of the Gupta Era. This era existed in the fourth and sixth century. When India was no longer under the Roman influence, they were able to develop their own form of art that focused on tranquility and spirituality. Some statues of Buddha have different meanings depending on the position of the hands. The body underneath the robe that Buddha wears is intended to be pleasing to the Indian eye and highly valued in Indian culture which creates prana. The placement and structure of the hands of Buddha, or mudra, are very symbolic. If Buddha`s right hand is stretching forward this conveys reassurance to the admirer.

If Buddha`s left hand is down to his side this conveys charity and wishes being met. When the hands make a circle with the forefinger and thumb, while palms facing up and on Buddha`s lap, this symbolizes teaching and is called the dharmachakra mudra. The dharmachakra mudra relates to Buddha`s teaching at Deer Park. The most famous statue of Buddha known to westerners is called the dhyana mudra. This mudra symbolizes mediation and harmony along with the path to enlightenment. Due toBuddha’s vast influential reach, it is a huge factor in identifying the Gupta Era.

[Chapter 2] Lion Gate

One of the most illustrious aspects of Mycenae is the Lion Gate. It was the main entrance to the city of Mycenae, Greece; it was built approximately in 1300-1200 B.C.E. One of the most memorable aspects of the entrance are the two lions sculpted at the entrance of Lion Gate. Mighty and Strong, they were used as a representation of guardians to the Earth and city at the entrance of the city.

The Lion Gate architecture was extremely advanced for its time. It was made of mainly limestone with stones carefully cut with right angle corners. It also included a tomb with a dome about 43 feet high. The dome especially had smooth and continuous edges; it is amazing how the structures are still intact to this day. The structures are the largest and oldest pieces of sculpture in Europe.

German archeologist, Heinrich Schliemann, who used Homer’s “The Iliad” as a road map on his excavation of Lion Gate, named the dome shaped entrance of the tomb the “Treasury of Atreus.” Atreus was the father of Agamemnon. Just beyond the entrance were two tombs. Schliemann found golden treasures in one of the tombs, Grave circle A in 1876. One of the pieces found was the Gold mask which is known as the “Mask of Agamemnon” Although Schliemann truly believed that he had found the tombs of Atreus and Agamemnon; there was insufficient evidence to support his theories. The “Mask of Agamemnon” actually predates Mycenaean culture by approximately three hundred years. In my opinion, the Lion Gate was an asset to the city because it signified the importance the city put on how valuable it was in wanting to protect it. The lions at the entrance acted as guardians protecting the city they so highly valued.

[Chapter 1] The Eighteenth Dynasty

Sculptures and paintings from ancient Egyptian civilizations glorified Pharaohs, their dynasties, and their tombs where they were buried to begin their afterlives. Most Pharaohs were portrayed without emotion in their facial expression.

Pharaohs were the living embodiments of Gods. They controlled all land and resources and concentrated their mortal lives preparing for their afterlives. There is one dynasty in particular that stood out more than any other, the Eighteenth Dynasty under Amenhotep, who later changed his name to Akhenaten. His dynasty did concentrate on many of the same things that other dynasties did, except that the Eighteenth dynasty chose to have a very normal side of their lives recorded, Family life.

In the above painted limestone relief, Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Their Children Worshiping the Sun, Akhenaten is shown demonstrating that softer and common side of his life. Although Nefertiti was not Akhenaten’s only wife, it is quite apparent that he favored her and their children. Akhenaten is shown interacting with his family just like any other family would. He shows such tender affection toward his daughter, while Nefertiti has their other two children on her lap and shoulder. It was uncommon for royalty to display emotion in their art. Although they are clearly royal, apparent through their head dresses, they show that more domestic aspect of their lives, an aspect of life that even a commoner could relate to.

Above is a sculpture of Queen Nefertiti. She looks elegant, sensitive, and distinguished. This sculpture is yet another portrayal of how the eighteenth dynasty had a more relaxed reign compared to other dynasties before. In my opinion, the Eighteenth Dynasty is definitely the dynasty that I would have liked to live under, just because it would have been nice to live under rulers that could relate to a more normal side of life.

[Chapter 6] Judaism & Islam: Comparing Two Old Religions

Although the religion of Islam stems from Judaism and both share the common belief in one God, the two religions are very different. In relation to the other major religions of the world, Islam is chronologically the newest.  The followers of Islam believe that their religion is the third and final truth that God has revealed (the first and second being Judaism and Christianity). The Jewish believe that they were chosen to be followers of God and that it is more of a destiny.

The followers of Islam, Muslims, believe in the same deity as the Jews but each use different a name. While Muslims refer to their god as “Allah”, the Jews have many names for their deity but believe his true name is “Yahweh”. Many Jews don’t even use that name as they believe it is too pious to be spoken or even written which is why sometimes it is abbreviated as YHWH. Founded by the prophet Muhammad, Islam has expanded from Mecca, Arabia around the world and amassed over a billion followers. Judaism, on the other hand, was initiated by the “Children of Israel,” or Hebrews and later became known as Jews due to the area around Jerusalem called Judaea which is where they lived. Judaism grew as well but that was not the intentions of the religion as they didn’t seek to covert non believers.

Mecca, Arabia

Judaea

View Larger Map

Similar to the idea of the Hebrew Bible, the Quran is scripture that teaches its followers how to live their lives. The Hebrew Bible was put together by many authors and over a long period of time although the Quran is very different in that it is believed to be God’s words that Muhammad memorized and recited for others to copy. Unlike the Bible, the Quran has 114 chapters called Surahs and are more instructions and teachings. The Bible differs in that it imbeds most of its teachings in its history and stories. The Quran and the Bible is used for more than just religion in its respective faith, both are used for educational purposes.

 

Islam and Judaism both have a center or important core to their religion. The Five Pillars of Islam is just that to the Muslim life. The Five Pillars are repetition of the creed, daily prayer, giving to charity or the needy, fasting during Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca. The Jewish has a similar simple set of rules which are called the Ten Commandments or the Decalogue which are have no other Gods other than Him, do not worship false idols, don’t take the Lords name in vain, keep holy the Sabbath, honor your father and mother, do not kill, do not commit adultery, don’t steal, don’t lie and be happy with what you have.

Despite their many differences, the core of each religion have similar teachings. Both religions teach their followers to live honest and good lives although each does it in its own distinct and different manner.

[Chapter 10] The Mysterious Machu Picchu

The Inca Indians inhabited the country of Peru for many years, and established many great architectural monuments such as the Machu Picchu. Imagine discovering this great and mysterious city, Machu Picchu, one of the greatest architectural wonders.  What would one conclude about this wonder? 

One crucial factor in determining a theory for the purpose for this great architectural site, is to ask how is this different from other historical and monumental sites? In order to depict the purpose and reason behind this city, one must establish a theory concerning the purpose of the city, then compare and contrasts it to a site with other historical value, such as the Pyramids of Egypt.                        

Theories behind the purpose vary, but the explanations and theories can vary from whether the city was built to be closer to the gods, was it a retirement city for the elderly, was it a religious sanctuary for the Inca Monarchs, was it a operating command post, or was it a trade post? These questions are important, yet they are still unanswered, and that is what makes this city more mysterious than other historical sites. For more current scientific research and observations of Machu Picchu, see the following link: http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/archaeology/machu-picchu-mystery/

In conclusion, there are many unanswered questions and mysteries concerning Machu Picchu, yet it was so unimportant to the Spaniards. Therefore, presently why are so many people infatuated with this city? Scientist and people are still yearning to discover the past, purpose and meaning of this city, after hundreds of years. What hidden gold did the Spaniards not see that travelers, explorers, and scientists see? I believe the city was a command post due to the above ground advantage and the access to water and food. 

[Chapter 9] Sports In Early Japanese Civilization

In the early Japanese civilization, most would automatically recall the rise of the religion of Shinto Buddhism, the Samurai, and the beautiful art and architecture. As one would come to discover, early Japanese people were about not only war, wealth, power, and religion, but they appreciated a time that captivated their lives in the present.

Many people do not typically consider sports occurring in early Japanese society because the Japanese were occupied trying to establish and discover a foundation of who they were as a nation and a culture. Most societies look at history and automatically pin point a name to that culture, such as Germany and the World War II Nazi’s. People overlook the nature of humans and view different cultures as if they were machines with no feelings or emotions.

The sport that showed another side of early Japan civilization was Sumo wrestling. Sumo wrestling to the early Japanese civilization is like football to the United States of America. All people need a relief from the complications of life, and as discovered, sports accomplish that. People often believe that the early Japanese civilization was too occupied enslaving people and trying to gain power and wealth, but at the end of the day, there were average and normal people in need of rest, aspiration, and motivation, which centered on Sumo wrestling.

In conclusion, it is true that many nations were and are concerned with growth, wealth, and power, but most people do not want to live a life in a society or country full of chaos. Why are sports such a present relief? How do sports have the ability to take away tomorrow or next month, and captivate your heart and mind at that very moment? In my opinion, I believe sports give you the ability to choose between two fates, ‘team a’ or ‘team b.” Sports give the ability to nations, families, and friends to create unity, aspiration, and motivation in the present moment.

[Chapter 3] Battle of Marathon: Athenian Glory

Greece and the Persian War have been depicted in movies with Spartans and the Battle of Thermpylae, although, I feel like the greater detail of how it all began comes from the Athenians and the Battle of Marathon. Ironically, the Athenians may have been the cause beginning with the quarrels they had with the Spartans concerning staying in Athens. The Athenians sought help from Persia to keep the Spartans out of their city. Persia agreed to support them and they both signed a treaty under Persia’s “earth and water” conditions. Confusion incurred because the Athenians didn’t know that by “earth and water," the Persians meant Athens would then belong to Persia. They believed they were letting them use their land as ground. This becomes the key problem as Athens gets into another battle with Sparta and ousts them without the Persian help. This in turn causes them to discontinue the treaty with Persia.

When the emperor of Persia, Darius, becomes aware of what has transpired he becomes furious with Athens. He sends his troops, led by General Datis, to destroy the city. Datis decides to lead his fleet into the Marathon Bay, twenty-five miles away from Athens. There he is met by General Miltiades and the Athenian army and prepare for battle. Even though the Athenian army was fiercely outnumbered by the Persians almost two to one, Miltiades’ army was located in a valley that would condense Datis’ troops thereby taking away their advantage. Using this tactic, many Persian warriors were slaughtered with minimal casualties for the Athenian army. Datis called for a retreat, but Miltiades still tried to fight as the Persians ran to their ships and Athens would then claim victory.

Miltiades had one of his men run twenty-six miles from Marathon to Athens to spread word of the events that had transpired. As the Persian fleet sailed off, they don’t head back to their homeland. Instead, they turned in the direction of the city of Athens. Miltiades quickly gathered his army to march to Athens to meet Datis’ fleet. When Datis realized he has been beaten to the city, he turned his ships around and sailed home. Emperor Darius swore his vengeance on Athens, but that vengeance was never realized before he died. His son, Xerxes, took over and continued the war with Greece and the Spartan battle of 300 soon follows. And even though the Spartans battle of 300 gets a lot of recognition the Athenian's battle is what the Persian War was built on, making it the most important battle of all.

[Chapter 5] The Old Testament prophets

Our textbook says on page 174 that the Israelite prophets “…were not prophetic in the sense that they foretold the future.” I don’t see the truth in this statement, when one looks at the number of events the biblical prophets foretold decades and sometimes century’s in advance. One may not believe in the validity of the Bible, but it’s incorrect to say that the Old Testament prophets never at least presumed to foretell events in the future.

The biggest example of the Old Testament prophets foretelling the future is when they speak of the Messiah. According to the Bible (New and Old Testament together), the Old Testament prophets spoke of a coming Messiah, and later in the New Testament Jesus comes and claims to be that very Messiah. One obvious example is in Luke 4:16-21 where Jesus reads the words of an Old Testament prophet in Isaiah 61:1-2, and then states, “Today this scripture is fulfilled in your hearing.” There are other examples; many sources say that there are around 100 Old Testament prophesies that the New Testament Messiah fulfills. 

Isaiah was first written around 700 years before the birth of Jesus as documented in the bible as well as other extra-biblical texts written by historical figures such as Josephus, and Tacitus. Some have suggested that Isaiah was written or rewritten at the time of or after the time of Jesus to make the prophecies fit him, however the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 disproves this theory. They contain word for word the book of Isaiah that is found in the Bible, with the exception of a few words, and every dating method used on the Isaiah contained in Dead Sea Scrolls (including carbon dating) has dated the document no later than 100 BC.
 

Even if you view the Bible as fiction, you still have to admit that the prophets at least professed to act as foretellers of the future. For example in Deuteronomy 18:20-22 (NLT) the writer says, “But any prophet who … falsely claims to speak for me must die.' You may wonder, 'How will we know whether the prophecy is from the LORD or not?' If the prophet predicts something in the LORD's name and it does not happen, the LORD did not give the message.” So the prophets did act as foretellers of the future, and they were actually held accountable to what they predicted.

The textbook is right when it says the biblical prophets warned the Israelites about the consequences of their actions, and that they spoke for God, but it is wrong when it says they didn’t prophecy in the sense of foretelling future events. To say they didn’t is just an unsupported opinion of the authors that should have either not been included in the textbook, or supported with some facts.

[Chapter 4] Legacy Of A Roman Wonder

Even though the the Coliseum was use for its entertainment, I believe it represents the strength of its Roman Emperor than anything else. The Coliseum has shown to be the most important tool in the hands of a Roman emperor. This was where he could meet and control the people of Rome. In 72AD Titus and his father, the Roman emperor, Vespasian commissioned a new project that would later become one of the greatest wonders of the world. Although the Coliseum was under a different name at the time; during its construction period, the Coliseum was known as the Flavian amphitheatre, after Vespasian’s family name. 


Built from three and a half million cubic feet of stone, this arena could hold over 50,000 people. The Coliseum is not only the biggest, but the most complex arena in Rome. With a thirty-six foot pit under the arena’s wooden floor, it was used as a system of supply lifts for animals, props, and stage scenery that were used in many performances. Throughout all of the Coliseum’s performances, the most historical shows were the gladiatorial games. Not only would the citizens of Rome come, but people from other parts of the world would take part in celebrating these competitive games. Gladiator legends such as Verus, Maximus, and Spartacus and their famous bouts gave the Coliseum its immortality. 


Unfortunately for the emperor Vespasian, he died before he could see his arena finished and the extraordinary battles that took place, leaving it to his son Titus to be in command. As Titus took control of the gladiatorial games he took a new approach with his newly inherited arena. During Vespasian’s reign as Caesar and keeper of the games, a gladiator’s chance of surviving about was ninety percent, unlike Titus’ intentions the games were all about killing the opposition.  This brought a new style to the games, and a new dynasty for the Coliseum. This forever made the Coliseum what many people see it today, a grand spectacle of bloody history and gladiator glory. Throughout all of these event, the Emperor used them to control his people and maintained order through his reign.