Chapter 11: Magna Carta



     The Magna Carta, also called Magna Carta Libertatum ("Great Charter of Freedoms"), is an English charter originally issued in 1215. Magna Carta was the most significant early influence on the long historical process that led to the rule of constitutional law today. Magna Carta influenced many common law documents, such as the United States Constitution and Bill of Rights, and is considered one of the most important legal documents in the history of democracy.

     By 1215, some of the barons of England banded together and took London by force on June 10, 1215. They and many of the fence-sitting moderates not in overt rebellion forced King John to agree to a document called the "Articles of the Barons," to which his Great Seal was attached in the meadow at Runnymede on June 15, 1215. In return, the barons renewed their oaths of fealty to King John on June 19, 1215. A formal document to record the agreement was created by the royal chancery on July 15: this was the original Magna Carta. An unknown number of copies of it were sent out to officials, such as royal sheriffs and bishops.

     The Magna Carta was originally written in Latin. A large part of Magna Carta was copied, nearly word for word, from the Charter of Liberties of Henry I, issued when Henry I ascended to the throne in 1100, which bound the king to certain laws regarding the treatment of church officials and nobles, effectively granting certain civil liberties to the church and the English nobility.

Chapter 8: The Hindu Caste System

The Hindu class system or “caste” system is a very different one than the class system we have in modern day American society. The caste system has been used for thousands of years in India. While today this system is not as strict as it has been in the past, much of the same characteristics can be found in rural areas. In Indian Society there are four main classes. First, there are the Brahmins which consist of priests, scholars, philosophers, and religious authorities. The Brahmins are the highest ranking caste in Indian society. Under the Brahmins are the Kshatriyas. The Kshatriyas consist of people in the military, and rulers. Basically, Kshatriyas were anyone who was concerned with the defense of a village or state. Next in line are the Vaishyas. The Vaishyas can be considered to be the middle class as they consisted of merchants, traders, and agriculture. And at the bottom of the caste system were the Shudras. It did not pay to be a Shudra as they were the laborers and servants for the other classes. If you thought that the caste system ended there you would be wrong. Under even the Shudras were the Untouchables. The Untouchables were such a low caste that they weren’t part of the caste system at all. People that were an Untouchable had the worst occupations ever. They performed jobs like dealing with dead bodies or cleaning toilets.
Whichever caste a person belonged to was determined at birth. It depended on what caste the parents were apart of and that is the caste that a newborn would also be a part of. There was almost no way of changing castes. If a person did something outside their caste they would be excommunicated from their caste.
As you can see the Hindu caste system is very different from the class structure that we have in modern day American society. There are no strict lines between classes and there are no penalties for doing something outside your class. Also in American society a person can work hard and become part of another class, and are not constrained to one class.

Chapter 7: Terracotta Soldiers

While digging a water well in the Shaanxi province of China, 1974, a group of farmers discovered the very famous Terracotta Soldiers. The Terracotta Soldiers were a vast army of stone soldiers buried with China’s first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, and were meant to accompany, and protect the emperor in the afterlife. The numbers of this army are quite stunning. There are 1800 soldiers divided among three pits, along with 130 chariots, 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses. Don’t assume that the statues stop there; there are also civilian statues such as musicians, acrobats, and even strongmen. Production of this army started in 246 BC, took 37 years to build, and required the advanced skill of over 720,000 workers. The most famous characteristic of the Terracotta Soldiers is the fact that every soldier is different. All soldiers have different facial features, and different facial expressions. In addition these soldiers differ even in height and build.
I think that this particular funerary art is the most fascinating in history. Judging by the sheer numbers of the statues, and how every single one is unique, is simply amazing. The time and effort to sculpt just one of these soldiers had to have been months. Sure, the pyramids in Egypt are grand in size and are an engineering feat, but what can match the attention to detail, and variation of the Terracotta Soldiers? In my opinion, there is no comparison.

[Chapter 8] Confucianism

Confucianism is a major philosophical and religious tradition that was created during the Zhou dynasty. Chinese natives during this time worshipped Confucianism. The man who started this religion was Confucius. Confucius was a very educated individual considering he had such a rough upbringing. After Confucius earned his education, he became a famous teacher who traveled from place to place sharing his knowledge. After Confucius died, his sayings and teachings lived on most notably in a book called The Analects. Confucius believed that individuals should lead a honorable life and live up to high values. He believed that if people were righteous and wholesome then the family would live a good life. If everyone lived their lives according to this, then the entire country would share the same values and live life to the fullest.

In Confucian teachings there are four qualities: li, jen, te and wen. Li teaches that people should be civil, have positive attitudes, and respect for authority. Jen teaches that people should have exceptional relationships with others. The exceptional relationships that Jen mentions includes courtesy, and charity. If a person has both jen and li, Confucian ideal believes this person is a superior human being. Another quality of Confucianism is te. Te involves a person`s character. Te includes influencing others, inspiring respect, and being able to oppress enemies. The last Confucian teaching is wen which deals with art. Confucius thought that art was the key to education and harmony. Music, poetry, art, and other activities based on culture are part of wen. Confucianism is meant to help people be an outstanding person to improve quality of life. The teachings of Confucius were brilliant. Confucius taught people to live a life full of purity which made the lifestyle for these people very harmonious.

[Chapter 7] Buddha In The Gupta Era

The first thing many people notice when studying Gupta art is how sublime it appears. Buddha is an example of Gupta art. The statue of the sitting Buddha is often depicted with its eyes half shut and relaxed facial features showing meditation. The reason behind this spiritual and calm art work is due to the rise of the Gupta Era. This era existed in the fourth and sixth century. When India was no longer under the Roman influence, they were able to develop their own form of art that focused on tranquility and spirituality. Some statues of Buddha have different meanings depending on the position of the hands. The body underneath the robe that Buddha wears is intended to be pleasing to the Indian eye and highly valued in Indian culture which creates prana. The placement and structure of the hands of Buddha, or mudra, are very symbolic. If Buddha`s right hand is stretching forward this conveys reassurance to the admirer.

If Buddha`s left hand is down to his side this conveys charity and wishes being met. When the hands make a circle with the forefinger and thumb, while palms facing up and on Buddha`s lap, this symbolizes teaching and is called the dharmachakra mudra. The dharmachakra mudra relates to Buddha`s teaching at Deer Park. The most famous statue of Buddha known to westerners is called the dhyana mudra. This mudra symbolizes mediation and harmony along with the path to enlightenment. Due toBuddha’s vast influential reach, it is a huge factor in identifying the Gupta Era.

[Chapter 2] Lion Gate

One of the most illustrious aspects of Mycenae is the Lion Gate. It was the main entrance to the city of Mycenae, Greece; it was built approximately in 1300-1200 B.C.E. One of the most memorable aspects of the entrance are the two lions sculpted at the entrance of Lion Gate. Mighty and Strong, they were used as a representation of guardians to the Earth and city at the entrance of the city.

The Lion Gate architecture was extremely advanced for its time. It was made of mainly limestone with stones carefully cut with right angle corners. It also included a tomb with a dome about 43 feet high. The dome especially had smooth and continuous edges; it is amazing how the structures are still intact to this day. The structures are the largest and oldest pieces of sculpture in Europe.

German archeologist, Heinrich Schliemann, who used Homer’s “The Iliad” as a road map on his excavation of Lion Gate, named the dome shaped entrance of the tomb the “Treasury of Atreus.” Atreus was the father of Agamemnon. Just beyond the entrance were two tombs. Schliemann found golden treasures in one of the tombs, Grave circle A in 1876. One of the pieces found was the Gold mask which is known as the “Mask of Agamemnon” Although Schliemann truly believed that he had found the tombs of Atreus and Agamemnon; there was insufficient evidence to support his theories. The “Mask of Agamemnon” actually predates Mycenaean culture by approximately three hundred years. In my opinion, the Lion Gate was an asset to the city because it signified the importance the city put on how valuable it was in wanting to protect it. The lions at the entrance acted as guardians protecting the city they so highly valued.

[Chapter 1] The Eighteenth Dynasty

Sculptures and paintings from ancient Egyptian civilizations glorified Pharaohs, their dynasties, and their tombs where they were buried to begin their afterlives. Most Pharaohs were portrayed without emotion in their facial expression.

Pharaohs were the living embodiments of Gods. They controlled all land and resources and concentrated their mortal lives preparing for their afterlives. There is one dynasty in particular that stood out more than any other, the Eighteenth Dynasty under Amenhotep, who later changed his name to Akhenaten. His dynasty did concentrate on many of the same things that other dynasties did, except that the Eighteenth dynasty chose to have a very normal side of their lives recorded, Family life.

In the above painted limestone relief, Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Their Children Worshiping the Sun, Akhenaten is shown demonstrating that softer and common side of his life. Although Nefertiti was not Akhenaten’s only wife, it is quite apparent that he favored her and their children. Akhenaten is shown interacting with his family just like any other family would. He shows such tender affection toward his daughter, while Nefertiti has their other two children on her lap and shoulder. It was uncommon for royalty to display emotion in their art. Although they are clearly royal, apparent through their head dresses, they show that more domestic aspect of their lives, an aspect of life that even a commoner could relate to.

Above is a sculpture of Queen Nefertiti. She looks elegant, sensitive, and distinguished. This sculpture is yet another portrayal of how the eighteenth dynasty had a more relaxed reign compared to other dynasties before. In my opinion, the Eighteenth Dynasty is definitely the dynasty that I would have liked to live under, just because it would have been nice to live under rulers that could relate to a more normal side of life.